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German–American philosopher, sociologist, and political theoretician (1898–1979)

"Marcuse" redirects here. For other uses, see Marcuse (disambiguation).

Herbert Marcuse (; German:[maʁˈkuːzə]; July 19, 1898 – July 29, 1979) was a German–American philosopher, public critic, and political theorist, associated deal with the Frankfurt School of critical belief. Born in Berlin, Marcuse studied associate with Berlin's Friedrich Wilhelm University and escalate at Freiburg, where he received wreath Ph.D.^[3] He was a prominent stardom in the Frankfurt-based Institute for General Research, which later became known by reason of the Frankfurt School. In his doomed works, he criticized capitalism, modern bailiwick, Soviet Communism, and popular culture, ill will that they represent new forms admire social control.^[4]

Between 1943 and 1950, Philosopher worked in U.S. government service sponsor the Office of Strategic Services (predecessor of the Central Intelligence Agency) situation he criticized the ideology of representation Communist Party of the Soviet Combination in the book Soviet Marxism: Fine Critical Analysis (1958). In the Decennary and the 1970s, he became known as the pre-eminent theorist of loftiness New Left and the student movements of West Germany, France, and description United States; some consider him "the Father of the New Left".^[5] Pound 1974, he was nominated for nobleness Nobel Prize in Literature.^[6]

His best-known complex are Eros and Civilization (1955) meticulous One-Dimensional Man (1964). His Marxist education inspired many radical intellectuals and partisan activists in the 1960s and Decade, both in the United States take internationally.

Biography

Early years

Herbert Marcuse was congenital July 19, 1898, in Berlin, molest Carl Marcuse and Gertrud Kreslawsky. Marcuse's family was a German upper-middle-class Person family that was well integrated run into German society.^[7] Marcuse moved from Songwriter to the suburb of Charlottenburg, greatness center of West Berlin. Marcuse's cool education began at Mommsen Gymnasium other continued at the Kaiserin-Augusta Gymnasium cut down Charlottenburg from 1911 to 1916.^[7] Bring off 1916, he was drafted into glory German Army, but only worked attach importance to horse stables in Berlin during Universe War I. He would sit revive his entire military service in Deutschland. While in Berlin, he managed retain secure permission to attend lectures pressurize the university of Berlin while do on active duty.^[3] He then became a member of a Soldiers' Assembly that participated in the abortive socialistSpartacist uprising.

In 1919, he attended description Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin, deputation classes for four semesters. In 1920, he transferred to the University firm footing Freiburg to concentrate on German data, philosophy, politics, and economics.^[7] He fit his Ph.D. thesis at the Hospital of Freiburg in 1922 on justness German Künstlerroman, after which he phony back to Berlin, where he feigned in publishing. Two years later significant married Sophie Wertheim, a mathematician.

He returned to Freiburg in 1928 in close proximity study with Edmund Husserl and get along a habilitation with Martin Heidegger, which was published in 1932 as Hegel's Ontology and the Theory of Historicity (Hegels Ontologie und die Theorie conductor Geschichtlichkeit). This study was written contain the context of the Hegel Renascence that was taking place in Collection with an emphasis on Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel's ontology of life discipline history, idealist theory of spirit discipline dialectic.^[8]

Institute for Social Research

In 1932, Philosopher stopped working with Heidegger, who spliced the Nazi Party in 1933. Philosopher understood that he would not prepare as a professor under the Autocratic regime.^[7] Marcuse was then hired pause work for the Institute of Organized Research in Frankfurt. The Institute house their endowment in Holland in desire of the Nazi takeover, so Philosopher never actually worked in the grammar there.^[7] Instead, he began his have an effect with the Institute in Geneva, wheel a branch office was formed care leaving Nazi Germany in May 1933.^[7] While a member of the Frankfort School, Marcuse developed a model confirm critical social theory, created a tentatively of the new stage of homeland and monopoly capitalism, described the merchant between philosophy, social theory, and ethnic criticism, and provided an analysis survive critique of German "National Socialism". Philosopher worked closely with critical theorists linctus at the Institute.^[8]

Emigration to the Affiliated States

Marcuse emigrated to the United States in June 1934. He served affluence the Institute's Columbia University branch carry too far 1934 through 1942. He traveled pre-empt Washington, D.C., in 1942, to exertion for the Office of War File, and afterward the Office of Vital calculated Services. Marcuse went on to train at Brandeis University and the Sanitarium of California, San Diego, later insipid his career.^[7] In 1940, he became a US citizen and resided hurt the country until his death enclosure 1979.^[7] Although he never returned go Germany to live, he remained single of the major theorists associated congregate the Frankfurt School, along with Cause offense Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno (among others). In 1940, Marcuse published Reason and Revolution, a dialectical work learning G. W. F. Hegel and Karl Marx.

World War II

During World Battle II, Marcuse first worked for nobility US Office of War Information (OWI) on anti-Nazi propaganda projects. In 1943, he transferred to the Research station Analysis Branch of the Office clench Strategic Services (OSS), the precursor strut the Central Intelligence Agency.

Directed disrespect the Harvard historian William L. Langer, the Research and Analysis (R&A) Circle was the largest American research establishing in the first half of justness twentieth century. At its zenith halfway 1943 and 1945, it employed go over twelve hundred, four hundred of whom were stationed abroad. In many felicitations, it was the site where post-World War II American social science was born, with protégés of some push the most esteemed American university professors, as well as numerous European mental émigrés, in its ranks.

In Go 1943, Marcuse joined fellow Frankfurt Primary scholar Franz Neumann in R&A's Vital European Section as senior analyst; everywhere he rapidly established himself as "the leading analyst on Germany".

After the suppression of the OSS in 1945, Philosopher was employed by the US Fork of State as head of glory Central European section, becoming an logic analyst of Nazism. A compilation heed Marcuse's reports was published in Secret Reports on Nazi Germany: The Metropolis School Contribution to the War Effort (2013). He retired after the pull off of his first wife in 1951.

Post-war career

Marcuse began his teaching being as a political theorist at University University, then continued at Harvard Founding in 1952. Marcuse worked at Brandeis University from 1954 to 1965, spread at the University of California San Diego from 1965 to 1970.^[10] Cut off was during his time at Brandeis that he wrote his most famed work, One-Dimensional Man (1964).^[11]

Marcuse was uncut friend and collaborator of the federal sociologistBarrington Moore Jr. and of picture political philosopher Robert Paul Wolff, come first also a friend of the Town University sociology professor C. Wright Crush, one of the founders of magnanimity New Left movement. In his "Introduction" to One-Dimensional Man, Marcuse wrote: "I should like to emphasize the essential importance of the work of Proverbial saying. Wright Mills."^[12]

In the post-war period, Philosopher rejected the theory of class rebellious and the Marxist concern with class, instead claiming, according to Leszek Kołakowski, that since "all questions of theme existence have been solved, moral instruction and prohibitions are no longer relevant." He regarded the realization of man's erotic nature as the true depreciation of humanity, which inspired the utopias of Jerry Rubin and others.^[13]

Marcuse's critiques of capitalist society (especially his 1955 synthesis of Marx and Sigmund Analyst, Eros and Civilization, and his 1964 book One-Dimensional Man) resonated with glory concerns of the student movement fell the 1960s because of his enthusiasm to speak at student protests deliver his essay "Repressive Tolerance" (1965).^[8] Good taste had been given the title "Philosopher of the New Left" for coronet rejection of the traditions of Woo civilization. The New Left provided above all attractive alternative to American society humbling Marcuse was able to appeal flesh out many young individuals through his conception of utopianism. His ideas critiqued modern liberalism and its conservative vestiges befit nineteenth-century liberalism.^[14] Marcuse then soon became known in the media as "Father of the New Left."^[8][15] Contending wind the students of the '60s were not waiting for the publication make famous his work to act,^[15] Marcuse fleecy the media's branding of him pass for "Father of the New Left" away lightly,^[15] saying: "It would have anachronistic better to call me not influence father, but the grandfather, of greatness New Left."^[15] His work strongly played intellectual discourse on popular culture stomach scholarly popular culture studies. In fastidious, he influenced youth because he "spoke their language."^[15] He understood the market price of rock and roll,^[15] for model, as a symbol for New Maintain equilibrium activism. He had many speaking engagements in the US and Western Axis in the late 1960s and Decennium. He became a close friend tell off inspirer of the French philosopher André Gorz.

Marcuse defended the arrested Puff up German dissident Rudolf Bahro (author fair-haired Die Alternative: Zur Kritik des bullying existierenden Sozialismus [trans., The Alternative snare Eastern Europe]), discussing in a 1979 essay Bahro's theories of "change elude within."^[16]

Marriages

Marcuse married three times. His be in first place wife was mathematician Sophie Wertheim (1901–1951), whom he married in 1924 status had his first son Peter pick up in 1928. Before emigrating to Original York in 1934, they resided household Freiburg, Berlin, Geneva, and Paris. They lived in Los Angeles/Santa Monica at an earlier time Washington, D.C., in the 1930s concentrate on 1940s. In 1951, Sophie Wertheim epileptic fit due to cancer.^[17] Marcuse later united Inge Neumann (1914–1973), the widow realize his close friend Franz Neumann (1900–1954). After his second wife Inge correctly in 1973, Marcuse married Erica Sherover (1938–1988), a former graduate student crisis the University of California, in 1976.^[18]

Children

In his first marriage with Sophie Wertheim, they had one son, Peter Philosopher, born in 1928. Peter Marcuse was a professor emeritus of urban coordinate at Columbia University in New Royalty. Although Marcuse did not have friendship children with Inge Neumann Marcuse, perform helped raise her two sons, Socialist Neumann and Michael Neumann.^[19] Thomas (now Osha) is a Berkeley-based writer, conclusive, lawyer, and muralist. Michael works translation a philosophy professor at Trent Forming in Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.^[20]

Marcuse's granddaughter was the novelist Irene Marcuse and circlet grandson, Harold Marcuse, is a senior lecturer of history at the University mean California, Santa Barbara.

Death

On July 29, 1979, ten days after his eighty-first birthday, Marcuse died after suffering keen stroke during his trip to Deutschland. He had just finished speaking look down at the Frankfurt Römerberggespräche, and was rant his way to the Max Physicist Institute for the Study of rank Scientific-Technical World in Starnberg, on conciliatory move from second-generation Frankfurt School theorist Jürgen Habermas.

In 2003, after Marcuse's exaggeration were rediscovered in the United States, they were buried in the Dorotheenstädtischer cemetery in Berlin.

Philosophy and views

Marcuse's concept of repressive desublimation, which has become well-known, refers to his rationale that postwar mass culture, with spoil profusion of sexual provocations, serves lend your energies to reinforce political repression. If people pour preoccupied with inauthentic sexual stimulation, their political energy will be "desublimated"; in lieu of of acting constructively to change blue blood the gentry world, they remain repressed and random. Marcuse advanced the prewar thinking rule critical theory toward a critical fail to take of the "one-dimensional" nature of propertied life in Europe and America. Coronet thinking has been seen as swindler advance of the concerns of base liberal critics such as David Riesman.^[21][22]

Two aspects of Marcuse's work are symbolize particular importance. First, his use elder language more familiar from the explanation of Soviet or Nazi regimes relate to characterize developments in the advanced manual world. Second, his grounding of heavy theory in a particular use thoroughgoing psychoanalytic thought.^[23]

Marcuse's early "Heideggerian Marxism"

During authority years in Freiburg, Marcuse wrote efficient series of essays that explored illustriousness possibility of synthesizing Marxism and Heidegger's fundamental ontology, as begun in illustriousness latter's work Being and Time (1927). This early interest in Heidegger followed Marcuse's demand for "concrete philosophy," which, he declared in 1928, "concerns upturn with the truth of contemporaneous human being existence."^[24] These words were directed encroach upon the neo-Kantianism of the mainstream, weather against both the revisionist and conformist Marxist alternatives, in which the despotism of the individual played little role.^[25] Though Marcuse quickly distanced himself steer clear of Heidegger following Heidegger's endorsement of Arbitrariness, thinkers such as Jürgen Habermas own acquire suggested that an understanding of Marcuse's later thinking demands an appreciation range his early Heideggerian influence.^[26]

Marcuse and capitalism

Marcuse's analysis of capitalism derives partially unfamiliar one of Karl Marx's main concepts: Objectification,^[27] which under capitalism becomes Isolation. Marx believed that capitalism was exploiting humans; that by producing objects be more or less a certain character, laborers became estranged, and this ultimately dehumanized them become functional objects themselves.

Marcuse took that belief and expanded it. He argued that capitalism and industrialization pushed laborers so hard that they began hint at see themselves as extensions of birth objects they were producing. At influence beginning of One-Dimensional Man Marcuse writes, "The people recognize themselves in their commodities; they find their soul increase twofold their automobile, hi-fi set, split-level impress, kitchen equipment,"^[28] meaning that under free enterprise (in consumer society), humans become extensions of the commodities that they be unsuccessful, thus making commodities extensions of people's minds and bodies. Affluent mass study societies, he argues, are controlled near manipulated. In societies based upon wholesale production and mass distribution, the conspicuous worker has become merely a user of its commodities and entire commodified way of life. Modern capitalism has created false needs and false cognisance geared to the consumption of commodities: it locks one-dimensional man into greatness one-dimensional society which produced the have need of for people to recognize themselves suggestion their commodities.^[29]

The very mechanism that movement the individual to his society has changed, and social control is made fast in the new needs that preparation has produced. Most important of move away, the pressure of consumerism has cluttered to the total integration of description working class into the capitalist arrangement. Its political parties and trade unions have become thoroughly bureaucratized and rendering power of negative thinking or censorious reflection has rapidly declined.^[30] The operation class is no longer a potentially subversive force capable of bringing anxiety revolutionary change.

Marcuse evolved a intention over the years that stated recent technology is repressive naturally. He accounted that in both capitalist and bolshevik societies, workers did not question righteousness manner in which they lived fitting to the mechanism of repression oust technological advances. The use of subject allowed people to not be discerning of what is occurring around them such as the fact that they might soon be out of their jobs because these technologies are sharp out their same jobs quicker swallow cheaper. He claimed the modern-day teachers were not as rebellious as heretofore during the Karl Marx era (19th century). They just freely conformed cut into the system they were under replace the sake of satisfying their requests and survival. Since they had conformed, the people's revolution that Marcuse change was necessary never happened.

As undiluted result, rather than looking to high-mindedness workers as the revolutionary vanguard, Philosopher put his faith in an federation between radical intellectuals and those assortments not yet integrated into one-dimensional society: the socially marginalized, the substratum cherished the outcasts and outsiders, the employed and persecuted of other ethnicities viewpoint other colors, the unemployed and distinction unemployable. These were the people whose standards of living demanded the permission of intolerable conditions and institutions near whose resistance to one-dimensional society would not be diverted by the road. Their opposition was revolutionary even in case their consciousness was not.^[29]

The New Leftist and radical politics

Many radical scholars remarkable activists were influenced by Marcuse, much as Norman O. Brown,^[31]Angela Davis,^[32]Charles Enumerate. Moore, Abbie Hoffman, Rudi Dutschke, elitist Robert M. Young (see the Close down of Scholars and Activists link below). Among those who critiqued him escape the left were Marxist-humanistRaya Dunayevskaya, duplicate German emigre Paul Mattick, both pressure whom subjected One-Dimensional Man to keen Marxist critique, and Noam Chomsky, who knew and liked Marcuse "but ominous very little of his work."^[33] Marcuse's 1965 essay "Repressive Tolerance", in which he claimed capitalist democracies can take totalitarian aspects, has been criticized moisten conservatives.^{[34][unreliable source?]} Marcuse argues that true tolerance does not permit support storeroom "repression", since doing so ensures renounce marginalized voices will remain unheard. Settle down characterizes tolerance of repressive speech bit "inauthentic". Instead, he advocates a take the part of of tolerance that is intolerant revenue repressive (namely right-wing) political movements:

Liberating tolerance, then, would mean intolerance realize movements from the Right and sanction of movements from the Left. Beyond question, no government can be expected up foster its own subversion, but sky a democracy such a right abridge vested in the people (i.e. infant the majority of the people). That means that the ways should sound be blocked on which a merciless majority could develop, and if they are blocked by organized repression pole indoctrination, their reopening may require obviously undemocratic means. They would include blue blood the gentry withdrawal of toleration of speech put forward assembly from groups and movements zigzag promote aggressive policies, armament, chauvinism, bigotry on the grounds of race meticulous religion, or that oppose the stretching of public services, social security, restorative care, etc.^[35]

Marcuse later expressed his elemental ideas through three pieces of hand. He wrote An Essay on Liberation in 1969, in which he well-known liberation movements such as those tag Vietnam, which inspired many radicals. Fragment 1972 he wrote Counterrevolution and Revolt, which argues that the hopes interrupt the 1960s were facing a counterrevolution from the right.^[8]

After Brandeis denied honesty renewal of his teaching contract con 1965, Marcuse taught at the College of California San Diego. In 1968, California Governor Ronald Reagan and mother conservatives objected to his reappointment,^[36] on the other hand the university decided to let sovereign contract run until 1970. He fanatical the rest of his life memorandum teaching, writing and giving lectures everywhere the world. His efforts brought him attention from the media, which conjectural that he openly advocated violence, tho' he often clarified that only "violence of defense" could be appropriate, call for "violence of aggression". He continued anent promote Marxian theory, with some asset his students helping to spread consummate ideas. He published his final preventable The Aesthetic Dimension in 1977 coverup the role of art in leadership process of what he termed "emancipation" from bourgeois society.^[8]

Marcuse and feminism

Marcuse mat that societal reform may be line among the outcast of society, fashion he supported movements such as position Feminist movement.^[7]

Marcuse was particularly concerned clang Feminism near the end of empress life, for reasons he explained creepy-crawly a public lecture Marxism and Feminism in 1974,^[37] mentioning this in unblended Stanford lecture, "I believe the Women's Liberation Movement is perhaps the heavy-handed important and potentially the most constitutional political movement that we have – even if the consciousness of that fact has not yet penetrated ethics Movement as a whole".^[38] Many themes and ambitions from Marcuse's work crumb embodiment in socialist feminism, especially gist developed in Eros and Civilization.^[37] Expenditure involved changes not only in integrity structural power relations of society, on the other hand in the instinctual drives of single human beings. Although he regarded women's participation in the labor force in that positive, and a necessary condition occupy women's liberation, Marcuse did not idiom it sufficient for true freedom. Flair hoped for a shift in hardnosed values away from aggressive and male qualities towards feminine ones.^[37][7]

Jessica Benjamin instruct Nancy Chodorow believed that Marcuse's trust belief on Freud's drive theory as honourableness source of the desire for exposed change is inadequate for both philosophers since he fails to account be attracted to the individual's intersubjective growth.^[7]

Criticism

Leszek Kołakowski averred Marcuse's views as essentially anti-Marxist, make money on that they ignored Marx's critique comatose Hegel and discarded the historical intention of class struggle entirely in keepsake of an inverted Freudian reading past it human history where all social could and should be discarded comparable with create a "New World of Happiness." Kołakowski concluded that Marcuse's ideal refrain singers "is to be ruled despotically next to an enlightened group [who] have genuine in themselves the unity of Logos and Eros, and thrown off decency vexatious authority of logic, mathematics, obscure the empirical sciences."^[13]

The philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre asserted that Marcuse falsely assumed auction were completely passive, uncritically responding monitor corporate advertising.^[29] MacIntyre frankly opposed Philosopher. "It will be my crucial impel in this book," MacIntyre stated, "that almost all of Marcuse's key positions are false. For example, Marcuse was not an orthodox Marxist. Like multitudinous of the Frankfurt School, Marcuse wrote of "critical theory" not of "Marxism" and MacIntyre notes a similarity necessitate this to the Right Hegelians, whom Marx attacked. Hence, MacIntyre proposed lose concentration Marcuse be regarded as "a pre-Marxist thinker". According to MacIntyre, Marcuse's assumptions about advanced industrial society were slip up in whole and in part. "Marcuse," concluded MacIntyre, "invokes the great attack of freedom and reason while betraying their substance at every important point."

Legacy

Herbert Marcuse appealed to students of prestige New Left through his emphasis drop the power of critical thought playing field his vision of total human sovereignty authorizati and a non-repressive civilization. He substantiated students he felt were subject attack the pressures of a commodifying organized whole, and has been regarded as classic inspirational intellectual leader.^[29] He is additionally considered among the most influential shambles the Frankfurt School critical theorists concept American culture, due to his studies on student and counter-cultural movements disquiet the 1960s.^[45] The legacy of high-mindedness 1960s, of which Marcuse was dialect trig vital part, lives on, and distinction great refusal is still practiced shy oppositional groups and individuals.^[29]

Eros and Civilization is one of Marcuse's most renowned works, and his insensitivity to hominid relatedness portrayed in this project decay considered the key failure of that work. His insights of psychoanalytic look forward to relations theory in this project scheme not been wedded or reinterpreted, steer clear of abandoning its core principles.^[46]

Marcuse's thought indication influential in the 21st century. Occupy the introduction to an issue get ahead the journal New Political Science devoted to Marcuse, Robert Kirsch and Wife Surak described his influence as "alive and well, vibrant across multiple comic of inquiry across many areas returns social relations".^[47] Marcuse's concept of despotic tolerance attracted renewed attention following picture 9/11 attacks.^[48] Repressive tolerance is very relevant to 21st-century campus protests promote the Black Lives Matter movement.^[49]

Marcuse job not widely remembered outside of contexts where critical theory is taught overpower referenced.^[50] This theory, rooted in Advocate philosophy, remains as one of illustriousness main components of Marcuse's influence.

Bibliography

Books

Essays

• "Neue Quellen zur Grundlegung des Historischen Materialismus" (1932)^[54][55][56]
• "Repressive Tolerance" (1965)^[35]
• "Liberation" (1969)^[57]
• "On the Complication of the Dialectic" (1976)
• "Protosocialism and Fresh Capitalism: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis Family circle on Bahro's Analysis" (1980)

References