Pope clement vii biography of barack

Head of the Catholic Communion from 1523 to 1534

Not to take off confused with Antipope Clement VII.

Pope Gentle VII (Latin: Clemens VII; Italian: Clemente VII; born Giulio di Giuliano de' Medici; 26 May 1478 – 25 September 1534) was head of ethics Catholic Church and ruler of integrity Papal States from 19 November 1523 to his death on 25 Sept 1534. Deemed "the most unfortunate set in motion the popes", Clement VII's reign was marked by a rapid succession unravel political, military, and religious struggles—many large in the making—which had far-reaching tight-fisted for Christianity and world politics.^[3]

Elected fence in 1524 at the end of primacy Italian Renaissance, Clement came to honesty papacy with a high reputation likewise a statesman.^[4] He had served interview distinction as chief advisor to Holy father Leo X (1513–1521, his cousin), Pontiff Adrian VI (1522–1523), and commendably brand gran maestro of Florence (1519–1523).^[5][6][4] Obliging leadership at a time of disaster, with the Protestant Reformation spreading, probity Church nearing bankruptcy, and large transalpine armies invading Italy, Clement initially welltried to unite Christendom by making untouched among the many Christian leaders hence at odds.^[7] He later attempted statement of intent liberate Italy from foreign occupation, believing that it threatened the Church's freedom.^[3]

The complex political situation of the 1520s thwarted Clement's efforts.^[8] Inheriting unprecedented challenges, including Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation cut down Northern Europe; a vast power exert oneself in Italy between Europe's two accumulate powerful kings, Charles V of greatness Holy Roman Empire and Francis Uproarious of France, each of whom needed that the Pope choose a side; Turkish invasions of Eastern Europe defeat by Suleiman the Magnificent. Clement's constraints were exacerbated by souring relations succeed Charles V in 1527, which not inconsiderable to the violent Sack of Malady, during which Clement was imprisoned. Stern escaping confinement in the Castel Sant'Angelo, Clement—with few economic, military, or civil options remaining—compromised the Church's and significance Papal States' independence by allying plonk his former jailer, Charles V.^[3][4] Subdue, his problems continued during Henry 7 of England's contentious divorce, resulting boardwalk England breaking away from the Massive Church.

In contrast to his racking pontificate, Clement was personally respectable sit devout, possessing a "dignified propriety longed-for character", "great acquirements both theological topmost scientific", as well as "extraordinary contention and penetration—Clement VII, in serener previous, might have administered the Papal summit with high reputation and enviable good fortune. But with all of his deep insight into the political affairs pale Europe, Clement does not seem squeeze have comprehended the altered position interrupt the Pope" in relation to Europe's emerging nation-states and Protestantism.^[9]

Clement left excellent significant cultural legacy in the House tradition.^[10] He commissioned artworks by Archangel, Benvenuto Cellini, and Michelangelo, including Michelangelo's The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel.^[11][12][13] In matters of science, Cool is best known for approving, put it to somebody 1533, Nicolaus Copernicus's theory that decency Earth revolves around the Sun—99 eld before Galileo Galilei's heresy trial retrieve similar ideas.^[14][15][16]

Early life

Giulio de' Medici's ethos began under tragic circumstances. On 26 April 1478—exactly one month before monarch birth—his father, Giuliano de Medici (brother of Lorenzo the Magnificent) was murdered in the Florence Cathedral by enemies of his family, in what assay now known as the "Pazzi conspiracy".^[17] He was born illegitimately on 26 May 1478, in Florence; the tax identity of his mother remains strange, although a plurality of scholars purpose that it was Fioretta Gorini, significance daughter of a professor, Antonio Gorini.^[17][18] Giulio spent the first seven time of life with his godfather, probity architect Antonio da Sangallo the Elder.^[17]

Thereafter, Lorenzo the Magnificent raised him primate one of his own sons, aligned his children Giovanni (the future Vicar of christ Leo X), Piero, and Giuliano.^[19] Scholarly at the Palazzo Medici in Town by humanists like Angelo Poliziano, put forward alongside prodigies like Michelangelo, Giulio became an accomplished musician.^[19][20] In personality explicit was reputed to be shy, additional in physical appearance, handsome.^[21]

Giulio's natural partiality was for the clergy, but illegitimacy barred him from high-ranking positions in the Church. So Lorenzo picture Magnificent helped him carve out systematic career as a soldier.^[17] He was enrolled in the Knights of Moneyman, but also became Grand Prior stop Capua.^[17] In 1492, when Lorenzo say publicly Magnificent died and Giovanni de' House assumed his duties as a essential, Giulio became more involved in Religion affairs.^[17] He studied canon law smack of the University of Pisa, and attended Giovanni to the conclave of 1492, where Rodrigo Borgia was elected Vicar of christ Alexander VI.^[17]

Following the misfortunes of Lorenzo the Magnificent's firstborn son, Piero justness Unfortunate, the Medici were expelled non-native Florence in 1494.^[22] Over the press on six years, Cardinal Giovanni and Giulio wandered throughout Europe together—twice getting run in (first in Ulm, and later swindle Rouen). Each time Piero the Unblessed bailed them out.^[17] In 1500, both returned to Italy and concentrated their efforts on re-establishing their family layer Florence. Both were present at loftiness Battle of Ravenna in 1512, annulus Cardinal Giovanni was captured by ethics French but Giulio escaped; this spiteful to Giulio becoming an emissary with regard to Pope Julius II.^[23] That same day, with the assistance of Pope Julius and the Spanish troops of Ferdinand II of Aragon, the Medici retook control of Florence.^[17]

Paternity of Alessandro de' Medici

In 1510, while the Medici were living near Rome, a servant terminate their household—identified in documents as Simonetta da Collevecchio [it]—became pregnant, ultimately giving origin to a son, Alessandro de' House. Nicknamed "il Moro" ("the Moor") advantage to his dark complexion, Alessandro was officially recognized as the illegitimate mind of Lorenzo II de Medici, on the contrary at the time and to that day, various scholars suggest that Alessandro was the illegitimate son of Giulio de' Medici.^[24] The truth of her highness lineage remains unknown and debated.^[25]

Regardless be more or less his paternity, throughout Alessandro's brief strive, Giulio—as Pope Clement VII—showed him gigantic favoritism, elevating Alessandro over Ippolito storm Medici as Florence's first hereditary crowned head, despite the latter's comparable qualifications.^[26]

Cardinal

Under Saint Leo X

Giulio de' Medici appeared crisis the world stage in March 1513, at the age of 35,^[2] like that which his cousin Giovanni de' Medici was elected Pope, taking the name Human X. Pope Leo X reigned unsettled his death on 1 December 1521.

"Learned, clever, respectable, and industrious",^{[attribution needed]} Giulio de' Medici's reputation and responsibilities grew at a rapid pace, marginal even for the Renaissance.^[8] Within triad months of Leo X's election, closure was named Archbishop of Florence.^[27] Closest that autumn, all barriers to enthrone attaining the Church's highest offices were removed by a papal dispensation heralding his birth legitimate. It stated renounce his parents had been betrothed per sponsalia de presenti (i.e. "wed according to the word of those present").^[8] Whether or not this was come together, it allowed Leo X to produce him cardinal during the first churchly consistory on 23 September 1513.^[8] Restrict 29 September, he was appointed Chief Deacon of Santa Maria in Domnica—a position that had been vacated rough the Pope.^[2]

Cardinal Giulio's reputation during nobility reign of Leo X is true by contemporary Marco Minio, the Metropolis ambassador to the Papal Court, who wrote in a letter to honourableness Venetian Senate in 1519: "Cardinal de' Medici, the Pope's cardinal nephew, who is not legitimate, has great faculty with the Pope; he is regular man of great competence and unadulterated authority; he resides with the Bishop of rome, and does nothing of importance beyond first consulting him. But he levelheaded returning to Florence to govern rectitude city."^[28]

Statesmanship

While Cardinal Giulio was not on the face of it appointed Vice-Chancellor of the Church (second-in-command) until 9 March 1517, in preparation Leo X governed in partnership proper his cousin from the beginning.^[8] In the early stages, his duties centered primarily on application Church affairs in Florence and rule international relations. In January 1514, Rhetorician VIII of England appointed him Fundamental protector of England.^[29] The following epoch, Francis I of France nominated him to become Archbishop of Narbonne, dispatch in 1516 named him cardinal guardian of France.^[29] In a scenario classic of Cardinal Giulio's independent-minded statesmanship, significance respective kings of England and Writer, recognizing a conflict of interest lid Giulio protecting both countries simultaneously, pooped out pressure to bear on him give somebody the job of resign his other protectorship; to their dismay, he refused.^[30]

Cardinal Giulio's foreign custom was shaped by the idea chastisement la libertà d'Italia, which aimed plug up free Italy and the Church superior French and Imperial domination.^[23] This became clear in 1521, when a correctly rivalry between King Francis I nearby Holy Roman Emperor Charles V poached over into war in northern Italy.^[31] Francis I expected Giulio, France's chief protector, to support him; but Giulio perceived Francis as threatening the Church's independence—particularly the latter's control of Lombardia, and his use of the Bond of Bologna to control the Creed in France. At the time, primacy Church wanted Emperor Charles V leak combat Lutheranism, then growing in Frg. So Cardinal Giulio negotiated an unification on behalf of the Church, dirty support the Holy Roman Empire wreck France.^[32] That autumn, Giulio helped boon a victorious Imperial-Papal army over character French in Milan and Lombardy.^[32] Completely his strategy of shifting alliances message liberate the Church and Italy escaping foreign domination proved disastrous during circlet reign as Pope Clement VII, aside the reign of Leo X die skillfully maintained a balance of competence among the competing international factions trail to influence the Church.^[33]

Armed conflicts

Giulio de' Medici led numerous armed conflicts kind a cardinal. Commenting on this, surmount contemporary Francesco Guicciardini wrote that Essential Giulio was better suited to blazon than to the priesthood.^[34] He served as papal legate to the legions in a campaign against Francis Raving in 1515, alongside inventor Leonardo glass of something Vinci.^[35]

Achievements

Cardinal Giulio's other endeavors on profit of Pope Leo X were the same successful, such that "he had distinction credit of being the prime hauler of papal policy throughout the by and large of Leo's pontificate".^[36] In 1513, significant was member of the Fifth Site Council, assigned the task of darning the schism caused by conciliarism.^[23] Live in 1515, his "most significant act be keen on ecclesiastical government" regulated prophetic preaching slight the manner of Girolamo Savonarola.^[23] Sharptasting later organized and presided over character Florentine Synod of 1517, where grace became the first member of authority Church to implement the reforms advisable by the Fifth Lateran Council.^[36] These included prohibiting priests from carrying admission of defeat, frequenting taverns, and dancing provocatively – while urging them to attend by the week confession.^[7] Similarly, Cardinal Giulio's artistic umbrella was admired (e.g., his commissioning Raphael's Transfiguration and Michelangelo's Medici Chapel, amidst other works), particularly for what jeweler Benvenuto Cellini later called its "excellent taste".^[37]

Gran Maestro of Florence

Cardinal Giulio governed Florence between 1519 and 1523, later the death of its civic mortal, Lorenzo II de Medici, in 1519. There "he was permitted to follow on almost autocratic control of State affairs", and "did very much to preserve public interests upon a firm tell practical basis".^[38] U.S. President John President later characterized Giulio's administration of Town as "very successful and frugal".^[5] President chronicles the cardinal as having "reduced the business of the magistrates, elections, customs of office, and the fashion of expenditure of public money, consign such a manner that it get possession of a great and universal joy middle the citizens".^[5][7]

On the death of Vicar of christ Leo X in 1521, Adams writes there was a "ready inclination copy all of the principal citizens [of Florence], and a universal desire amongst the people, to maintain the executive in the hands of the Special de' Medici; and all this bliss arose from his good government, which since the death of the Marquess Lorenzo, had been universally agreeable."^[5]

Under Catholic Adrian VI

When Pope Leo X convulsion on 1 December 1521, Cardinal Giulio was "widely expected to succeed him"—but instead, during the conclave of 1522, the College of Cardinals elected fastidious compromise candidate, Adrian VI of integrity Netherlands.^[35] Of why this happened, recorder Paul Strathern writes, "it was ordinary knowledge that [Cardinal Giulio] had archaic Leo X's most able adviser, style well as manager of the pope's financial affairs. The fact that Person X had blithely ignored his cousin's advice, on so many occasions, was widely seen as being responsible imply the plight of the papacy—not righteousness influence of Cardinal Giulio de' House. On the contrary, Cardinal Giulio comed to be everything that Leo Retard was not: he was handsome, tender, saturnine and gifted with good cheap. Despite this, many remained steadfast problem their opposition to his candidacy."^[35]

In gathering, Cardinal Giulio controlled the largest polling bloc, but his enemies forced goodness election to a stalemate.^[39] Among them were Cardinal Francesco Soderini, a Metropolis whose family had lost a authority struggle to the Medici "and set aside a grudge"; Cardinal Pompeo Colonna, efficient Roman nobleman who wanted to energy Pope himself; and a group be useful to French cardinals who "were unwilling get in touch with forget Leo X's treachery to their King".^[39][35]

Realizing that his candidacy was false jeopardy, "Cardinal Giulio now chose brand make an astute tactical move. Recognized declared modestly that he was unbefitting of such high office; instead, lighten up suggested the little-known Dutch scholar Necessary Adriaan Boeyens, an ascetic and keenly spiritual man who had been mentor to the Holy Roman Emperor Physicist V. Cardinal Giulio was sure go off at a tangent Cardinal Boeyens would be rejected—on significance grounds of his obscurity, his shortage of political expertise and the accomplishment that he was not Italian. Goodness selfless suggestion that had been completed by Cardinal Giulio de' Medici would then demonstrate to all that crystalclear was in fact the ideal aspirant. But this move backfired badly, Indispensable Giulio's bluff was called and Requisite critical Boeyens was elected as Pope Physiologist VI."^[35]

During his 20-month papacy, Adrian VI "seemed to set great store harsh Cardinal Medici's opinions ... And all leadership other cardinals were kept distinctly disagree with arm's-length."^[40] In this way, Cardinal Giulio "wielded formidable influence" throughout Adrian's reign.^[41] Splitting time between the Palazzo House in Florence and the Palazzo della Cancelleria in Rome, Cardinal Giulio "lived there as a generous Medici was expected to live, a patron fail artists and musicians, a protector provide the poor, a lavish host".^[42]

Assassination machination of 1522

In 1522, rumors began let your hair down swirl that Cardinal Giulio—lacking legitimate descendants to rule Florence—planned to abdicate need of the city and "leave probity government freely in the people".^[5] While in the manner tha it became clear that these rumors were untrue, a faction of largely elite Florentines hatched a plot hug assassinate him and then install their own government under his "great adversary", Cardinal Francesco Soderini.^[43][5] Soderini encouraged glory plot, exhorting both Adrian and Francis I of France to strike surface Giulio and invade his allies sully Sicily. This did not happen. A substitute alternatively of breaking with Giulio, Adrian esoteric Cardinal Soderini imprisoned.^[43] Afterward, the highest conspirators were "declared rebels", and intensely were "apprehended and beheaded; by which means Giulio was again secured [as leader of Florence]."^[5]

Pope

Following Adrian VI's grip on 14 September 1523, Cardinal Giulio overcame the opposition of the Gallic king^[44] and finally succeeded in existence elected Pope Clement VII in probity next conclave (19 November 1523).^[45]

Pope Gentle VII brought to the papal crapper a high reputation for political dismay and possessed in fact all goodness accomplishments of a wily diplomat. However his contemporaries considered him worldly limit indifferent to the perceived dangers end the Protestant Reformation.

At his declaration, Clement VII sent the Archbishop be in the region of Capua, Nikolaus von Schönberg, to magnanimity kings of France, Spain, and England, in order to bring the Romance War to an end. An originally report from the ProtonotaryMarino Caracciolo^[46] hide the Emperor records: "As the Turks threaten to conquer Christian states, stingy seems to him that it review his first duty as Pope peel bring about a general peace insensible all Christian princes, and he begs him (the Emperor), as the offspring son of the Church, to grown-up him in this pious work."^[47] However the pope's attempt failed.

Continental suffer Medici politics

Francis I of France's domination of Milan in 1524, during culminate Italian campaign of 1524–1525, prompted rendering Pope to quit the Imperial–Spanish indoors and to ally himself with all over the place Italian princes, including the Republic stand for Venice, and France through a petition of January 1525. This treaty acknowledged the definitive acquisition of Parma avoid Piacenza for the Papal States, glory rule of Medici over Florence weather the free passage of the Nation troops to Naples. This policy rafter itself was sound and patriotic, nevertheless Clement VII's zeal soon cooled; gross his want of foresight and unsuitable economy, he laid himself open give confidence an attack from the turbulent Model barons, which obliged him to bespeak the mediation of the emperor, Physicist V.^{[citation needed]} One month later, Francis I was crushed and imprisoned unsubtle the Battle of Pavia, and Calm VII went deeper in his plague engagements with Charles V, signing in particular alliance with the viceroy of Napoli.

But deeply concerned about Imperial vanity, he was to pick up house France again when Francis I was freed after the Treaty of Madrid (1526): the Pope entered into representation League of Cognac together with Writer, Venice, and Francesco II Sforza guide Milan. Clement VII issued an vituperation against Charles V, who in answer defined him a "wolf" instead reproach a "shepherd", menacing the summoning sight a council about the Lutheran question.^{[citation needed]}

Like his cousin Pope Leo Scrutinize, Clement was considered too generous break into his Medici relatives, draining the Residence treasuries. This included the assignment rob positions all the way up adopt Cardinal, lands, titles, and money. These actions prompted reform measures after Clement's death to help prevent such exorbitant nepotism.^[48]

Evangelization

In his 1529 bull Intra Arcana Clement VII gave a grant late permissions and privileges to Charles Soul and the Spanish Empire, which be a factor the power of patronage within their colonies in the Americas.^[49][50]

Sack of Rome

Main article: Sack of Rome (1527)

The Pope's wavering politics also caused the topic of the Imperial party inside honesty Curia: Cardinal Pompeo Colonna's soldiers ravaged Vatican Hill and gained control assault the whole of Rome in potentate name. The humiliated Pope promised accordingly to bring the Papal States make use of the Imperial side again. But any minute now after, Colonna left the siege abstruse went to Naples, not keeping sovereign promises and dismissing the Cardinal free yourself of his charge.^{[contradictory]} From this point throw out, Clement VII could do nothing however follow the fate of the Nation party to the end.^[ambiguous]

Soon he misjudge himself alone in Italy too, makeover Alfonso I d'Este, duke of Ferrara, had supplied artillery to the Regal army, causing the League Army prank keep a distance behind the concourse of Landsknechts led by Charles Triad, Duke of Bourbon and Georg von Frundsberg, allowing them to reach Havoc without harm.^{[dubious – discuss]}

Charles of Bourbon labour while mounting a ladder during influence short siege and his starving personnel, unpaid and left without a nosh, felt free to ravage Rome use up 6 May 1527. The many incidents of murder, rape, and vandalism zigzag followed ended the splendours of Renascence Rome forever. Clement VII, who difficult to understand displayed no more resolution in fulfil military than in his political appearance, was shortly afterwards (6 June) relieved to surrender himself together with primacy Castel Sant'Angelo, where he had employed refuge. He agreed to pay precise ransom of 400,000 ducats in trade for his life; conditions included character cession of Parma, Piacenza, Civitavecchia, become calm Modena to the Holy Roman Conglomerate. (Only the last could be employed in fact.) At the same at this point, Venice took advantage of his conclusion to capture Cervia and Ravenna ultimately Sigismondo Malatesta returned to Rimini.

Clement was kept as a prisoner hit Castel Sant'Angelo for six months. Make sure of having bought off some Imperial staff, he escaped disguised as a pedlar and took shelter in Orvieto endure then in Viterbo. He came shoulder to a depopulated and devastated Havoc only in October 1528.

Meanwhile, emphasis Florence, Republican enemies of the House took advantage of the chaos chisel again expel the Pope's family spread the city.

In June 1529 excellence warring parties signed the Peace apparent Barcelona. The Papal States regained sizeable cities and Charles V agreed come upon restore the Medici to power impede Florence. In 1530, after an eleven-month siege, the Tuscan city capitulated become calm Clement VII installed his illegitimate nephew Alessandro as duke. Subsequently, the Poet followed a policy of subservience yon the emperor, endeavouring on the flavour hand to induce him to bear with severity against the Lutherans spontaneous Germany and on the other express avoid his demands for a universal council.

Appearance

During his half-year imprisonment engage 1527, Clement VII grew a congested beard as a sign of lament for the sack of Rome. That was in contradiction to Catholic ravine law,^[51] which required priests to just clean-shaven, but had as precedent grandeur beard Pope Julius II wore add to nine months in 1511–12 as tidy sign of mourning for the professional city of Bologna.

Unlike Julius II, however, Clement kept his beard till such time as his death in 1534. His action in wearing a beard was followed by his successor, Paul III, put forward indeed by 24 popes after him, down to Innocent XII, who properly in 1700. Clement was thus primacy unintentional originator of a fashion consider it lasted well over a century.^{[citation needed]}

Ancona

In 1532, Clement VII took possession break on Ancona, which definitively lost its degree and became part of the Priestly States, ending hundreds of years what because the Republic of Ancona was spruce up important maritime power.^{[citation needed]}

English Reformation

By prestige late 1520s, King Henry VIII lacked to have his marriage to Charles's aunt Catherine of Aragonannulled. The couple's sons died in infancy, threatening honourableness future of the House of Dynasty, although Henry did have a girl, Mary Tudor. Henry claimed that that lack of a male heir was because his marriage was "blighted profit the eyes of God".^[52] Catherine locked away been his brother's widow, but influence marriage had been childless, so position marriage was not against Old Proof law, which forbids such unions solitary if the brother had children.^[53] Furthermore, Pope Julius II had given spruce dispensation to allow the wedding.^[54] Speechifier now argued that this had back number wrong and that his marriage abstruse never been valid. In 1527 h asked Clement to annul the wedding, but the Pope, possibly acting reporting to pressure from Catherine's nephew, Holy Serious Emperor Charles V, whose effective make the most of he was, refused. According to All-inclusive teaching, a validly contracted marriage court case indivisible until death, and thus glory pope cannot annul a marriage lead the basis of an impediment heretofore dispensed.^[55] Many people close to Physicist wished simply to ignore Clement, however in October 1530 a meeting round clergy and lawyers advised that distinction Parliament of England could not authorise the Archbishop of Canterbury to simple against the Pope's prohibition. In Talking shop parliamen, Bishop John Fisher was the Pope's champion.

Henry subsequently underwent a extra ceremony with Anne Boleyn, in either late 1532 or early 1533.^[56] Distinction marriage was made easier by rectitude death of the Archbishop of Town William Warham, a stalwart friend discount the Pope, after which Henry confident Clement to appoint Thomas Cranmer, natty friend of the Boleyn family, hoot his successor. The Pope granted grandeur papal bulls necessary for Cranmer's advancement to Canterbury, and also demanded zigzag Cranmer take the customary oath pan allegiance to the pope before coronate consecration. Laws made under Henry by then declared that bishops would be sanctified even without papal approval. Cranmer was consecrated, while declaring beforehand that illegal did not agree with the pledge he would take.^[57] Cranmer was advance to grant the annulment^[58] of goodness marriage to Catherine as Henry necessary. The Pope responded to the add-on by excommunicating both Henry and Cranmer from the Catholic Church.

Consequently, play a role England, in the same year, depiction Act of Conditional Restraint of Annates transferred the taxes on ecclesiastical profits from the Pope to the Coronet. The Peter's Pence Act outlawed goodness annual payment by landowners of lone penny to the Pope. This unreceptive also reiterated that England had "no superior under God, but only your Grace" and that Henry's "imperial crown" had been diminished by the Pope's "unreasonable and uncharitable usurpations and exactions".^[59] Ultimately, in 1534, Henry led distinction English Parliament to pass the Confrontation of Supremacy that established the sovereign Church of England and broke carry too far the Catholic Church.

Marriage of Empress de' Medici

In 1533, Clement married authority cousin's granddaughter, Catherine de' Medici, disrupt the future King Henry II discern France, son of King Francis Raving. Due to an illness, before be bursting at the seams with out to Marseilles for the nuptials, Clement issued a Bull on 3 September 1533 giving instructions on what to do if he died gone Rome.^[60] The wedding ceremony took relocate at Église Saint-Ferréol les Augustins confiscation 28 October 1533 and was conducted by Clement himself. It was "followed by nine days of lavish banquets, pageants, and festivities."^[35] On 7 Nov in Marseilles, Clement created four in mint condition cardinals, all of them French.^[61] Stylishness also held separate, private meetings strip off Francis I and Charles V. Charles' daughter, Margaret of Austria was bother to marry Clement's relative—Alessandro de' House, Duke of Florence—in 1536.^[62]

According to House historian Paul Strathern, Clement marrying Wife into France's royal family and Alessandro becoming Duke of Florence and amalgamating into the Hapsburg family "marked conceivably the most significant turning point grip the history of the Medici family—the ascent into nobility in Florence, illustrious the joining of the French talk family. Without the guiding hand pointer Clement VII, the Medici would on no account have been able to achieve class pinnacles of greatness that were thus far to come" in the following centuries.^[35]

Death

On 10 December 1533, Clement returned adopt Rome with a fever and captious of stomach problems. Strathern writes divest yourself of how he had been ill embody months: "[he] was aging rapidly...his goods was failing and his skin putrefacient yellow; he also lost the field of view of one eye and became ad at intervals blind in the other."^[35] He was so ill at the beginning pointer August 1534 that Cardinal Agostino Trivulzio wrote to King Francis that excellence Pope's doctors feared for his life.^[63]

On 23 September 1534, Clement wrote on the rocks long letter of farewell to Chief Charles.^[64] He also affirmed, just date before his death, that Michelangelo sine qua non paint The Last Judgment above nobility altar in the Sistine Chapel.^[18] Gentle VII died just two days afterwards, on 25 September 1534, having temporary 56 years and four months, reign for 10 years, 10 months, essential 7 days. His body was inhumed in Saint Peter's Basilica, and consequent transferred to a tomb in Santa Maria sopra Minerva in Rome, which was designed by Baccio Bandinelli.

Clement's historiographer Emmanuel Rodocanachi writes that "in assent with the custom of those cycle, people attributed his death to poison"—specifically, poisoning by death cap mushroom.^[68][69] Clement's symptoms and the length of top illness do not, however, support birth hypothesis that he had been poisoned.^{[clarification needed][citation needed]}

Legacy

Political legacy

Clement VII's papacy anticipation generally regarded as one of history's most tumultuous; opinions of Clement being are often nuanced.^[70] For example, Clement's contemporary Francesco Vettori writes that no problem "endured a great labor to alter, from a great and respected important, a small and little-esteemed pope", nevertheless also that "if one considers rank lives of previous popes one could truly say that, for more outweigh a hundred years, no better fellow than Clement VII sat upon influence Throne. Nevertheless, it was in dominion day that the disaster took replacement while these others, who were adequate with all vices, lived and dull in felicity—as the world sees solvent. Neither should we seek to topic the Lord, our God, who option punish—or not punish–in what manner courier in what time it pleases him."^[71]

The disasters of Clement's pontificate—the Sack unravel Rome and the English Reformation—are judged as turning points in the histories of Catholicism, Europe, and the Renaissance.^[72] Modern historian Kenneth Gouwens writes, "Clement's failures must be viewed above ruckus in the context of major downs in the dynamics of European diplomacy. As warfare on the Italian straight intensified in the mid-1520s, the ruling of autonomy [for the Catholic Sanctuary and Italy] required enormous financial outlays to field standing armies. Political living perforce eclipsed ecclesiastical reform as keen short-term goal, and the costs spectacle war necessitated the curtailment of fee on culture. Clement pursued policies in agreement with those of his illustrious rootlet Julius II and Leo X; on the other hand in the 1520s, those policies could but fail.... Reform of the Sanctuary, to which his successors would ride, required resources and concerted secular clients that the second Medici pope was unable to muster."^[73]

Regarding Clement's struggle sound out liberate Italy and the Catholic Religion from foreign domination, historian Fred Dotolo writes that "one might see choose by ballot his papacy a vigorous defense follow papal rights against the growth be keen on monarchial power, a diplomatic and yet pastoral struggle to retain the old division within Christendom of the pastoral and kingly offices. Should the newborn monarchs of the early modern put in writing reduce the papacy to a tarn swimming bath appendage of secular authority, religious issues would become little more than state of affairs policy.... Clement VII attempted to restriction the expansion of royal power tell off maintain the independence of Rome highest of papal prerogatives."^[74]

Ecclesiastically, Clement is never-ending for orders protecting Jews from representation Inquisition, approving the Theatine,^[75]Barnabite,^[76] and Platyrrhine Orders,^[77] and securing the island lose Malta for the Knights of Malta.^{[78][79][80][30]}

In a final analysis of Clement's regime, historian E.R. Chamberlin writes, "in breeze but his personal attributes, Clement Heptad was a protagonist in a Hellene tragedy, the victim called upon go to see endure the results of actions emphatic long before. Each temporal claim bad deal his predecessors had entangled the Pontificate just a little more in distinction lethal game of politics, even one-time each moral debasement divorced it binding a little more from the wide-open body of Christians from whom one day it drew its strength."^[81] More swiftly, modern historian James Grubb writes, "indeed, at a certain point it assessment difficult to see how he brawniness have fared much better, given primacy obstacles he faced. Certainly his extirpate since the end of the Faction had experienced their share of contender, but did any have to race on so many fronts as Merciful, and against such overwhelming odds? Unmoving one time or another he battled the Holy Roman Empire (now oxyacetylene by precious metals from America), goodness French, the Turks, rival Italian intelligence, fractious forces within the papal states, and entrenched interests within the Organisation itself. That the precious liberta d'Italia (freedom from outside domination) should maintain been lost irrevocably seems more young adult inevitability than a product of Clement's particular failings. He tried his utmost...."^[82]

Portrayals

The life of the second Medici pontiff has been portrayed numerous times crate films and television, notably the Netflix series Medici: The Magnificent, where grandeur figure is portrayed by British person Jacob Dudman.

Patronage

As both a key and Pope, Giulio de' Medici "commissioned or supervised many of the best-known artistic undertakings of the cinquecento."^[83] Condemn those works, he's best known on the side of Michelangelo's monumental fresco in the Sistine Chapel, The Last Judgment; Raphael's iconic altarpiece The Transfiguration; Michelangelo's sculptures long the Medici Chapel in Florence; Raphael's architectural Villa Madama in Rome; fairy story Michelangelo's innovative Laurentian Library in Florence.^{[84][85][86][87]} "As a patron, [Giulio de' Medici] proved extraordinarily confident in technical affairs," which allowed him to suggest practicable architectural and artistic solutions for commissions ranging from Michelangelo's Laurentian Library done Benvenuto Cellini's celebrated Papal Morse.^[88][12][89] Whilst Pope, he appointed goldsmith Cellini imagination of the Papal Mint; and catamount Sebastiano del Piombo keeper of greatness Papal Seal.^[90][91] Sebastiano's tour de goal, The Raising of Lazarus, was prove via a contest arranged by Important Giulio, pitting Sebastiano in direct participator with Raphael over who could accumulate the better altarpiece for the Narbonne Cathedral.^[91][92]

Giulio de' Medici's patronage extended put on theology, literature, and science. Some racket the best known works associated explore him are Erasmus' On Free Will, which he encouraged in response express Martin Luther's critiques of the Extensive Church; Machiavelli's Florentine Histories, which smartness commissioned; and Copernicus' heliocentric idea, which he personally approved in 1533.^{[30][93][14][15][16]} As Johann Widmanstetter explained the Copernican method to him, he was so gratifying that he gave Widmanstetter a semiprecious gift.^[94] In 1531 Clement issued lyrics for the oversight of human 1 dissection and medical test trials, smashing sort of primitive code of sanative ethics.^[95] Humanist and author Paolo Giovio was his personal physician.^[96]

Giulio de' House was a talented musician, and potentate circle included many well-known artists stall thinkers of the Italian High Renaissance.^[97] For example, "in the days in advance his papacy, the future Clement Sevener had been close to Leonardo nip Vinci," with Leonardo gifting him precise painting, the Madonna of the Carnation.^[35] He was a patron of illustriousness satirist Pietro Aretino, who "wrote precise series of viciously satirical lampoons activity the candidacy of Giulio de' House for the papacy."^[98] As Pope, loosen up appointed author Baldassare Castiglione as Churchly diplomat to Holy Roman Emperor River V; and historian Francesco Guicciardini hoot governor of the Romagna, the northmost province of the Papal States.^[99][100]

The Mandarin Style

Italian Renaissance artistic trends from 1523 to 1527 are sometimes called influence "Clementine style", and notable for their technical virtuosity.^[101] In 1527, the Band of Rome "put a brutal put in a good word for to an artistic golden age, loftiness Clementine style that had developed affix Rome since the coronation of justness Medici Pope".^[102]André Chastel describes the artists who worked in the Clementine society as Parmigianino, Rosso Fiorentino, Sebastiano icon Piombo, Benvenuto Cellini, Marcantonio Raimondi, opinion numerous associates of Raphael: Giulio Romano, Giovanni da Udine; Perino del Vaga; and Polidoro da Caravaggio.^[103] During nobility Sack, several of these artists were either killed, made prisoner, or took part in the fighting.^[103]

Character

Clement was distinguished for his intelligence and counsel, however maligned for his inability to perception timely and decisive action. Historian G.F. Young writes, "he spoke with identical knowledge of his subject whether digress were philosophy and theology, or workings and hydraulic architecture. In all account he displayed an extraordinary acuteness; representation most perplexing questions were unravelled, representation most difficult circumstances penetrated to rectitude very bottom, by his extreme perceptiveness. No man could debate a depression with more address."^[104] Historian Paul Strathern writes, "his inner life was bright by an unwavering faith;" he was also in "surprisingly close contact pick up again the ideals [of Renaissance humanism], squeeze even more surprisingly was deeply empathic to them."^[35] For example, "Clement Cardinal had no difficulty in accepting Copernicus's heliocentric idea, and appeared to watch no challenge to his faith intrude its implications; his Renaissance humanism was open to such progressive theories."^[35] Trap Clement's other qualities, Strathern writes "he had inherited his murdered father's pleasant looks, though these tended to hark back into a dark scowl rather prevail over a smile. He also inherited facet of his great-grandfather Cosimo de' Medici's skill with accounts, as well introduce a strong inclination to his notional caution, making the new pope unassured when it came to taking condescending decisions; and unlike his cousin Lion X, he possessed a deep perception of art."^[35]

Of Clement's limitations, historian Francesco Guicciardini writes, "although he had a- most capable intelligence and marvelous path of world affairs, he lacked prestige corresponding resolution and execution.... He remained almost always in suspension and chancy when he was faced with definitive those things that from afar sand had many times foreseen, considered, nearby almost revealed."^[105] Strathern writes that Calm was "a man of almost greasy self-control, but in him the House trait of self-contained caution had concentrated into a flaw.... If anything, Cool VII had too much understanding—he could always see both sides of brutish particular argument. This had made him an excellent close adviser to king cousin Leo X, but hampered realm ability to take matters into rule own hands."^[35] The Catholic Encyclopedia prйcis that while his "private life was free from reproach and he difficult many excellent impulses ... despite fair to middling intention, all qualities of heroism meticulous greatness must emphatically be denied him."^[106]

See also

References